After the Dictator was the Consul (the highest position if not an emergency), and then the Praetor, and then the Censor, and then the curule aedile, and finally the quaestor. [34] Their sacrosanctity was enforced by a pledge, taken by the plebeians, to kill any person who harmed or interfered with a tribune during his term of office. [1] As such, no ordinary magistrate could veto any of their actions. [10] While in Rome, all citizens had an absolute protection against Coercion. Often, they used this power to act as provincial governors. [33] The chief Praetor in Rome, the urban praetor, outranked all other Praetors, and for a brief time, they were given power over the treasury. 2 plebeians for the first time in 131 B.C. A magistrate's imperium was at its apex while the magistrate was abroad. [23] No other ordinary magistrate could veto a censor because no ordinary magistrate technically outranked a censor. [42] A dictator's power was equivalent to that of the power of the two consuls exercised conjointly, without any checks on their power by any other organ of government. Censeurs (Rome) Economie politique -- Rome -- Histoire. [13] Sometimes, the case was brought before the College of tribunes, and sometimes before the Plebeian Council (popular assembly). Their actions could not be vetoed by any magistrate other than a plebeian tribune, or a fellow censor. In addition, a series of laws were passed, which placed additional checks on the power of the dictator. Often the dictator resigned his office as soon as the matter that caused his appointment was resolved. The last ordinary dictator was appointed in 202 BC. [1] Thus, both of these magistrates were referred to as "Extraordinary Magistrates". [43] Often, the dictator functioned principally as the master of the infantry (and thus the legions), while the Master of the Horse (as the name implies) functioned as the master of the cavalry. The texts of enacted statutes and decrees of the Roman Senate were deposited in the treasury under the supervision of the quaestors. [32] The quaestors could only issue public money for a particular purpose if they were authorized to do so by the senate. Since no tribune could retain his powers outside of the city of Rome, the power of Coercion here was absolute. [7] Throughout the year, one consul was superior in rank to the other consul. Defined more broadly, however, imperium gave a magistrate the constitutional authority to issue commands (military, diplomatic, civil, or otherwise). While the magistrates had access to oracular documents, the Sibylline books, they rarely consulted with these books, and even then, only after seeing an omen. [30] Any expenditure of public funds, by either a curule aedile or a plebeian aedile, had to be authorized by the senate. [23] The Dictator then appointed a Master of the Horse to serve as his most senior lieutenant. [18], Tribunes could use their sacrosanctity to order the use of capital punishment against any person who interfered with their duties. If the tribune was abroad, the plebeians in Rome could not enforce their oath to kill any individual who harmed or interfered with the tribune. [26] Once a census was complete, a purification ceremony (the lustrum) was performed by a censor, which typically involved prayers for the upcoming five years. [1][2] When the king died, his power reverted to the Roman Senate, which then chose an Interrex to facilitate the election of a new king. [20] Other praetors had foreign affairs-related responsibilities, and often acted as governors of the provinces. Each dictator appointed a Master of the Horse (magister equitum or Master of the Knights), to serve as his most senior lieutenant. An additional check over a magistrate's power was that of Provincia, which required a division of responsibilities. [24] Censors did not have imperium powers, and they were not accompanied by any lictors. Texte remanié de: Thèse--Histoire romaine--Université Marc-Bloch de Srasbourg, 1999. While a dictator could ignore the right of Provocatio, that right, as well as the plebeian tribune's independence, theoretically still existed during a dictator's term. [22] Constitutional government dissolved, and the Dictator became the absolute master of the state. [6] Two consuls were elected for an annual term (from January through December) by the assembly of Roman citizens, the Centuriate Assembly. His power, in practice, was absolute. Any magistrate could obstruct (veto) an action that was being taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of magisterial powers. patrician, from the fall of the Kings. In times of military emergency, a Roman Dictator was appointed for a term of six months. [2] Sometimes he submitted his decrees to either the popular assembly or to the senate for a ceremonial ratification, but a rejection did not prevent the enactment of a decree. The Roman magistrates were elected officials in Ancient Rome. [11] Omens could be discovered while observing the heavens, while studying the flight of birds, or while studying the entrails of sacrificed animals. [34] Augustus divided the college of Quaestors into two divisions, and assigned one division the task of serving in the senatorial provinces, and the other the task of managing civil administration in Rome. Thereafter in descending order came the censor (who, while the highest-ranking ordinary magistrate by virtue of his prestige, held little real power), the consul, the praetor, the curule aedile, and the quaestor. [43] The Master of the Horse had constitutional command authority (imperium) equivalent to a praetor, and often, when they authorized the appointment of a dictator, the senate specified who was to be the Master of the Horse. The executive magistrates of the Roman Kingdom were elected officials of the ancient Roman Kingdom. Since the plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles were elected by the plebeians (commoners) in the Plebeian Council, rather than by all of the People of Rome (plebeians and the aristocratic patrician class), they were technically not magistrates. If the senate voted in favor of the nominee, that person stood for formal election before the People of Rome in the Curiate Assembly (the popular assembly). Any action taken in spite of a valid provocatio was on its face illegal.[39]. first plebeian elected in 422 (?) While the term "plebeian magistrate" (magistratus plebeii) has been used as an approximation, it is technically a contradiction. Rome (Empire) Finanzwirtschaft; Geschichte; Römisches Reich; Belastingen. Each magistrate was vested with a degree of power, called "major powers" or maior potestas. john.p.adams@csun.edu. Any Roman citizen had the absolute right to appeal any ruling by a magistrate to a plebeian tribune. A magistrate was required to look for omens while presiding over a legislative or senate meeting, and while preparing for a war. During the transition from republic to the Roman empire, the constitutional balance of power shifted from the Roman Senate back to the executive (the Roman Emperor). Since the tribunes were considered to be the embodiment of the plebeians, they were sacrosanct. [40][41] The dictator's power over the Roman government was absolute, as they were not checked by any institution or magistrate. [6] In theory at least, the tribunician powers (which were similar to those of the plebeian tribunes under the old republic) gave the emperor authority over Rome's civil government, while the proconsular powers (similar to those of military governors, or proconsuls, under the old republic) gave him authority over the Roman army. If a magistrate was threatening to take action against a citizen, that citizen could yell "provoco ad populum", which would appeal the magistrate's decision to a tribune. elected NOT by the People (Populus) but only by the Plebs, in the. When the king left the city, an Urban Prefect presided over the city in place of the absent king. As soon as that tribune was no longer present, the act could be completed as if there had never been a veto. first elected in 444 B.C., to meet plebeian demand to be included in chief magistracy, but without having to elect a plebeian to be consul; there were no consuls elected when Consular Tribunes were elected. [11] All senior magistrates (consuls, praetors, censors, and plebeian tribunes) were required to actively look for omens (auspicia impetrativa); simply having omens thrust upon them (auspicia oblativa) was generally not adequate. Magistrates often chose which quaestor accompanied them abroad,[31] and these quaestors often functioned as personal secretaries[28] responsible for the allocation of money, including army pay. The last ordinary Dictator was appointed in 202 BC. First Plebeian elected in 254 B.C. This is why, for example, each consul was accompanied by twelve lictors outside the pomerium or six inside, whereas the dictator (as the Roman King before him) was accompanied by twenty four lictors outside the pomerium or twelve inside. Any magistrate could obstruct (veto) an action that was being taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of magisterial powers. Paris : Sirey, 1968 (OCoLC)631090290: Document Type: Book: All Authors / Contributors: Georges Piéri Imperial Consuls could preside over the senate, could act as judges in certain criminal trials, and had control over public games and shows. [8] The traditional magistracies were only available to citizens of the senatorial class. The emperor's tribunician powers gave him power over Rome's civil apparatus,[28][29] as well as the power to preside over, and thus to dominate, the assemblies and the senate. Defined narrowly, imperium simply gave a magistrate the authority to command a military force. Thus, dictatorial appointments were tantamount to a six-month restoration of the monarchy, with the dictator taking the place of the old Roman king. When war broke out, he had the sole power to organize and levy troops, to select leaders for the army, and to conduct the campaign as he saw fit. [6] In theory at least, the tribunician powers (which were similar to those of the plebeian tribunes under the old republic) gave the emperor authority over Rome's civil government, while the proconsular powers (similar to those of military governors, or Proconsuls, under the old republic) gave him authority over the Roman army. [20] Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome, and were vested with powers over the markets, and over public games and shows. Dictator was an extraordinary magistrate normally elected in times of emergency (usually military) for a short period. After they were elected, they were granted imperium powers by the assembly. Theoretically, the senate elected each new emperor; in practice each emperor chose his own successor, though the choice was often overruled by the army or civil war. Since plebeian tribunes (as well as plebeian aediles) were technically not magistrates,[5] they relied on the sacrosanctity of their person to obstruct. Once the Interrex found a suitable nominee for the kingship, he presented this nominee to the senate for an initial approval. [23] Censors were elected by the assembly of Roman Soldiers, the Centuriate Assembly, usually after the new consuls and praetors for the year began their term. Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome, and often assisted the higher magistrates. 15.52 Roman Empire. There were several reasons for this change. [8], All magistrates had the power of coercion (coercitio), which was used by magistrates to maintain public order. Thus, they acted as a popular check over the senate (through their veto powers), and safeguarded the civil liberties of all Roman citizens. While components of public administration were delegated to other magistrates, the management of the government was under the ultimate authority of the consul. As part of the census, the emperor had the power to assign individuals to a new social class, including the senatorial class, which gave the emperor unchallenged control over senate membership. Only Roman citizens (both plebeians and patricians) had the right to confer magisterial powers (potestas) on any individual magistrate. In time, however, the differences between the plebeian aediles and the curule aediles disappeared. [34] The sacrosanctity of a tribune (and thus all of his legal powers) were only in effect so long as that tribune was within the city of Rome. Economische politiek. [25] A censor had the ability to fine a citizen, or to sell his property,[25] which was often a punishment for either evading the census or having filed a fraudulent registration. [22] When the Dictator's term ended, constitutional government was restored. [27] Censors had several other duties as well, including the management of public contracts and the payment of individuals doing contract work for the state. [45] It declared "videant consules ne res publica detrimenti capiat" ("let the consuls see to it that the state suffer no harm") which, in effect, vested the consuls with dictatorial powers. Priest of Quirinus-Romulus. Examples include flogging, imprisonment, fines, mandating pledges and oaths, enslavement, banishment, and sometimes even the destruction of a person's house.